Estonian
Nominals table
| gloss | layer | nom sg | gen sg | part sg | gen pl | part pl option 1 | part pl option 2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| big | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| big | lexeme | `suur | suure | `suurt | suurte | `suuri | `suuri |
| big | stem | #A | #B | #A | #C | #A | #A |
| big | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| daughter | grade | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| daughter | lexeme | tütar | `tütre | tütart | tütarde | `tütreid | `tütreid |
| daughter | stem | #A | #B | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| daughter | suffix | zero | zero | t | de | id | id |
| duck | grade | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| duck | lexeme | padi | padja | `patja | `patjade | `patjasid | `patju |
| duck | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| duck | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | V |
| essential | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| essential | lexeme | oluline | olulise | olulist | oluliste | olulisi | olulisi |
| essential | stem | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| essential | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| exercise | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| exercise | lexeme | harjutus | harjutuse | harjutust | harjutuste | harjutusi | harjutusi |
| exercise | stem | #A | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| exercise | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| hand | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| hand | lexeme | käsi | `käe | `kätt | käte | käsi | käsi |
| hand | stem | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| hand | suffix | zero | zero | tt | te | zero | zero |
| happy | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| happy | lexeme | õnne`lik | õnneliku | õnne`likku | õnnelike | õnne`likke | õnne`likke |
| happy | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| happy | suffix | zero | zero | zero | V | V | V |
| hay | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| hay | lexeme | `hein | heina | `heina | heinte | `heinasid | `heinu |
| hay | stem | #A | #B | #B | #C | #B | #B |
| hay | suffix | zero | zero | zero | te | sid | sid |
| idea | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| idea | lexeme | i`dee | i`dee | i`deed | i`deede | i`deesid | i`deeid |
| idea | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| idea | suffix | zero | zero | d | de | sid | V |
| lake | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| lake | lexeme | jõgi | `jõe | jõge | jõgede | jõgesid | jõgesid |
| lake | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #C | #C |
| lake | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| maple | grade | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| maple | lexeme | vaher | `vahtra | `vahtrat | `vahtrate | `vahtraid | `vahtraid |
| maple | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| maple | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| member | grade | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| member | lexeme | liige | `liikme | liige | `liikmete | `liikmeid | `liikmeid |
| member | stem | #A | #B | #A | #B | #B | #B |
| member | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| name | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| name | lexeme | nimi | nime | nime | nimede | nimesid | nimesid |
| name | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #C | #C |
| name | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| new | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| new | lexeme | `uus | uue | `uut | uute | uusi | uusi |
| new | stem | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| new | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| playful | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| playful | lexeme | vallatu | vallatu | vallatut | vallatute | vallatuid | vallatuid |
| playful | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| playful | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| pupil | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| pupil | lexeme | õpik | õpiku | õpikut | õpikute | õpikuid | õpikuid |
| pupil | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| pupil | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| roof | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| roof | lexeme | katus | katuse | katust | katuste | katuseid | katuseid |
| roof | stem | #A | #B | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| roof | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| salty | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| salty | lexeme | soolane | soolase | soolast | soolaste | soolaseid | soolaseid |
| salty | stem | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| salty | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| seminar | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| seminar | lexeme | seminar | seminari | seminari | seminaride | seminare | seminare |
| seminar | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| seminar | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| smith | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| smith | lexeme | `sepp | sepa | `seppa | `seppade | `seppasid | `seppasid |
| smith | stem | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| smith | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| speech | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| speech | lexeme | kõne | kõne | kõnet | kõnede | kõnesid | kõnesid |
| speech | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| speech | suffix | zero | zero | t | de | sid | sid |
| tail | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| tail | lexeme | saba | saba | saba | sabade | sabasid | sabu |
| tail | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| tail | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | V |
| thing | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| thing | lexeme | ase | aseme | aset | asemete | asemeid | asemeid |
| thing | stem | #A | #B | #A | #B | #B | #B |
| thing | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| thought | grade | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| thought | lexeme | mõte | `mõtte | mõtet | mõtete | `mõtteid | `mõtteid |
| thought | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| thought | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| tooth | grade | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| tooth | lexeme | hammas | `hamba | hammast | hammaste | `hambaid | `hambaid |
| tooth | stem | #A | #B | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| tooth | suffix | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| war | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| war | lexeme | sõda | sõja | sõda | sõdade | sõdasid | sõdu |
| war | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| war | suffix | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | V |
Nouns table
| gloss | layer | type | nom sg | gen sg | part sg | gen pl | part pl option 1 | part pl option 2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| big | grade | 5 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| big | lexeme | 2a75 | `suur | suure | `suurt | suurte | `suuri | `suuri |
| big | stem | 7 | #A | #B | #A | #C | #A | #A |
| big | suffix | 2a | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| daughter | grade | 4 | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| daughter | lexeme | 1a44 | tütar | `tütre | tütart | tütarde | `tütreid | `tütreid |
| daughter | stem | 4 | #A | #B | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| daughter | suffix | 1a | zero | zero | t | de | id | id |
| duck | grade | 7 | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| duck | lexeme | 427 | padi | padja | `patja | `patjade | `patjasid | `patju |
| duck | stem | 2 | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| duck | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | V |
| essential | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| essential | lexeme | 251 | oluline | olulise | olulist | oluliste | olulisi | olulisi |
| essential | stem | 5 | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| essential | suffix | 2 | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| exercise | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| exercise | lexeme | 24a1 | harjutus | harjutuse | harjutust | harjutuste | harjutusi | harjutusi |
| exercise | stem | 4a | #A | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| exercise | suffix | 2 | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| hand | grade | 5 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| hand | lexeme | 2b65 | käsi | `käe | `kätt | käte | käsi | käsi |
| hand | stem | 6 | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| hand | suffix | 2b | zero | zero | tt | te | zero | zero |
| happy | grade | 5 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| happy | lexeme | 4b25 | õnne`lik | õnneliku | õnne`likku | õnnelike | õnne`likke | õnne`likke |
| happy | stem | 2 | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| happy | suffix | 4b | zero | zero | zero | V | V | V |
| hay | grade | 5 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| hay | lexeme | 4a2b5 | `hein | heina | `heina | heinte | `heinasid | `heinu |
| hay | stem | 2b | #A | #B | #B | #C | #B | #B |
| hay | suffix | 4a | zero | zero | zero | te | sid | sid |
| idea | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| idea | lexeme | 51a1 | i`dee | i`dee | i`deed | i`deede | i`deesid | i`deeid |
| idea | stem | 1a | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| idea | suffix | 5 | zero | zero | d | de | sid | V |
| lake | grade | 6 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| lake | lexeme | 42a6 | jõgi | `jõe | jõge | jõgede | jõgesid | jõgesid |
| lake | stem | 2a | #A | #B | #B | #B | #C | #C |
| lake | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| maple | grade | 2 | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| maple | lexeme | 122 | vaher | `vahtra | `vahtrat | `vahtrate | `vahtraid | `vahtraid |
| maple | stem | 2 | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| maple | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| member | grade | 3 | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| member | lexeme | 133 | liige | `liikme | liige | `liikmete | `liikmeid | `liikmeid |
| member | stem | 3 | #A | #B | #A | #B | #B | #B |
| member | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| name | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| name | lexeme | 42a1 | nimi | nime | nime | nimede | nimesid | nimesid |
| name | stem | 2a | #A | #B | #B | #B | #C | #C |
| name | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| new | grade | 5 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| new | lexeme | 2a65 | `uus | uue | `uut | uute | uusi | uusi |
| new | stem | 6 | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| new | suffix | 2a | zero | zero | t | te | V | V |
| playful | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| playful | lexeme | 111 | vallatu | vallatu | vallatut | vallatute | vallatuid | vallatuid |
| playful | stem | 1 | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| playful | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| pupil | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| pupil | lexeme | 121 | õpik | õpiku | õpikut | õpikute | õpikuid | õpikuid |
| pupil | stem | 2 | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| pupil | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| roof | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| roof | lexeme | 141 | katus | katuse | katust | katuste | katuseid | katuseid |
| roof | stem | 4 | #A | #B | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| roof | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| salty | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| salty | lexeme | 151 | soolane | soolase | soolast | soolaste | soolaseid | soolaseid |
| salty | stem | 5 | #A | #B | #C | #C | #C | #C |
| salty | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| seminar | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| seminar | lexeme | 421 | seminar | seminari | seminari | seminaride | seminare | seminare |
| seminar | stem | 2 | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| seminar | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| smith | grade | 6 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| smith | lexeme | 426 | `sepp | sepa | `seppa | `seppade | `seppasid | `seppasid |
| smith | stem | 2 | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B |
| smith | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | sid |
| speech | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| speech | lexeme | 31a1 | kõne | kõne | kõnet | kõnede | kõnesid | kõnesid |
| speech | stem | 1a | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| speech | suffix | 3 | zero | zero | t | de | sid | sid |
| tail | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| tail | lexeme | 41a1 | saba | saba | saba | sabade | sabasid | sabu |
| tail | stem | 1a | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| tail | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | V |
| thing | grade | 1 | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| thing | lexeme | 131 | ase | aseme | aset | asemete | asemeid | asemeid |
| thing | stem | 3 | #A | #B | #A | #B | #B | #B |
| thing | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| thought | grade | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | |
| thought | lexeme | 114 | mõte | `mõtte | mõtet | mõtete | `mõtteid | `mõtteid |
| thought | stem | 1 | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| thought | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| tooth | grade | 4 | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong |
| tooth | lexeme | 144 | hammas | `hamba | hammast | hammaste | `hambaid | `hambaid |
| tooth | stem | 4 | #A | #B | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| tooth | suffix | 1 | zero | zero | t | te | id | id |
| war | grade | 6 | #strong | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| war | lexeme | 41a6 | sõda | sõja | sõda | sõdade | sõdasid | sõdu |
| war | stem | 1a | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B |
| war | suffix | 4 | zero | zero | zero | de | sid | V |
Verbs table
| gloss | layer | supine | supine abess | act ptcp prs | supine iness | supine elat | supine trans | 3 sg pst ind | 1 sg pst ind | 2 sg pst ind | 3 pl pst ind | 1 pl pst ind | 2 pl pst ind | inf | ger | juss | 1 pl imp | 2 pl imp | act ptcp pst | 3 sg prs ind | 1 sg prs ind | 2 sg prs ind | 2sg imp | 1 pl prs ind | 2 pl prs ind | 3 pl prs ind | impers ptcp pst | impers pst ind | impers prs ind |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| be reconciled | grade | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak |
| be reconciled | lexeme | `leppima | `leppimata | `leppiv | `leppimas | `leppimast | `leppimaks | `leppis | `leppisin | `leppisid | `leppisid | `leppisime | `leppisite | `leppida | `leppides | `leppigu | `leppigem | `leppige | `leppinud | lepib | lepin | lepid | lepi | lepime | lepite | lepivad | lepitud | lepiti | lepitakse |
| be reconciled | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| be reconciled | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | s | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | da | des | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | tud | ti | takse |
| come | grade | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #weak |
| come | lexeme | tulema | tulemata | tulev | tulemas | tulemast | tulemaks | tuli | tulin | tulid | tulid | tulin | tulin | `tulla | `tulles | tulgu | tulgem | tulge | tulnud | tuleb | tulen | tuled | tule | tuleme | tulete | tulevad | `tuldud | `tuldi | tullakse |
| come | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #C | #C | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #C |
| come | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | i | in | id | id | ime | ite | a | es | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | dud | di | akse |
| eat | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #weak |
| eat | lexeme | `sööma | söömata | `sööv | söömas | söömast | söömaks | `sõi | `sõin | `sõid | `sõid | sõime | sõite | `süüa | `süües | söögu | söögem | sööge | söönud | `sööb | `söön | `sööd | `söö | sööme | sööte | söövad | `söödud | `söödi | süüakse |
| eat | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #C | #C | #C | #C | #C | #C | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B |
| eat | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | i | in | id | id | ime | ite | a | es | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | dud | di | akse |
| feed | grade | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak |
| feed | lexeme | `söötma | `söömata | `söötev | `söömas | `söömast | `söömaks | `söötis | `söötisin | `söötisid | `söötisid | `söötisin | `söötisin | `sööta | `söötes | `söötku | `söötkem | `söötke | `söötnud | söödab | söödan | söödad | sööa | söödame | söödate | söödavad | söödetud | söödeti | söödetakse |
| feed | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #C | #C | #C |
| feed | suffix | ma | mata | ev | mas | mast | maks | is | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | a | es | ku | kem | ke | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | tud | ti | takse |
| jump | grade | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak |
| jump | lexeme | `hüppama | `hüppamata | `hüppav | `hüppamas | `hüppamast | `hüppamaks | `hüppas | `hüppasin | `hüppasid | `hüppasid | `hüppasime | `hüppasite | hüpata | hüpates | hüpaku | hüpakem | hüpake | hüpanud | `hüppab | `hüppan | `hüppad | `hüppa | `hüppame | `hüppate | `hüppavad | hüpatud | hüpati | hüpatakse |
| jump | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| jump | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | s | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | ta | tes | ku | kem | ke | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | tud | ti | takse |
| laugh | grade | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| laugh | lexeme | `naerma | `naermata | `naerev | `naermas | `naermast | `naermaks | `naeris | `naerisin | `naerisid | `naerisid | `naerisime | `naerisite | `naerda | `naerdes | `naergu | `naergem | `naerge | `naernud | naerab | naeran | naerad | naera | naerame | naerate | naeravad | `naerdud | `naerdi | `naerdakse |
| laugh | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A |
| laugh | suffix | ma | mata | ev | mas | mast | maks | is | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | da | des | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | dud | di | dakse |
| live | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| live | lexeme | elama | elamata | elav | elamas | elamast | elamaks | elas | elasin | elasid | elasid | elasime | elasite | elada | elades | elagu | elagem | elage | elanud | elab | elan | elad | ela | elame | elate | elavad | elatud | elati | elatakse |
| live | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| live | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | s | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | da | des | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | tud | ti | takse |
| quarrel | grade | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak |
| quarrel | lexeme | `riidlema | `riidlemata | `riidlev | `riidlemas | `riidlemast | `riidlemaks | `riidles | `riidlesin | `riidlesid | `riidlesid | `riidlesime | `riidlesite | riielda | riieldes | riielgu | riielgem | riielge | riielnud | `riidleb | `riidlen | `riidled | `riidle | `riidleme | `riidlete | `riidlevad | riieldud | riieldi | riieldakse |
| quarrel | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B |
| quarrel | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | s | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | da | des | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | dud | di | dakse |
| sit | grade | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| sit | lexeme | `seisma | `seismata | `seisev | `seismas | `seismast | `seismaks | `seisis | `seisin | `seisid | `seisid | `seisime | `seisite | `seista | `seistes | `seisku | `seiskem | `seiske | `seisnud | seisab | seisan | seisad | seisa | seisame | seisate | seisavad | `seistud | `seisti | `seistakse |
| sit | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A |
| sit | suffix | ma | mata | ev | mas | mast | maks | is | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | ta | tes | ku | kem | ke | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | tud | ti | takse |
| struggle | grade | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none | #none |
| struggle | lexeme | rabelema | rabelemata | rabelev | rabelemas | rabelemast | rabelemaks | rabeles | rabelesin | rabelesid | rabelesid | rabelesime | rabelesite | rabelda | rabeldes | rabelegu | rabelgem | rabelge | rabelnud | rabeleb | rabelen | rabeled | rabele | rabeleme | rabelete | rabelevad | rabeldud | rabeldi | rabeldakse |
| struggle | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B |
| struggle | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | s | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | da | des | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | dud | di | dakse |
| take | grade | #strong | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong | #strong | #weak | #weak | #weak | #strong | #strong | #strong |
| take | lexeme | `võima | võimata | `võiv | võimas | võimast | võimaks | `võis | võisin | võisid | võisid | võisime | võisite | `võida | `võides | võigu | võigem | võige | võinud | `võib | `võin | `võid | `või | võime | võite | võivad | `võidud | `võidi | `võidakse |
| take | stem | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #B | #B | #B | #B | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A | #A |
| take | suffix | ma | mata | v | mas | mast | maks | s | sin | sid | sid | sime | site | da | des | gu | gem | ge | nud | b | n | d | zero | me | te | vad | dud | di | dakse |
Estonian notes, with comparative Finnic notes
References
Viks, Ülle. 1992. Väike võrmisõnastik (volume 1). Tallinn: Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia, Keele ja Kirjanduse Instituut
Comparative Finnic notes: Stem gradation in Finnic
Stem gradation describes what was originally the lenition of stem consonants under certain phonological conditions connected with syllable structure and stress. Because the addition of different inflectional suffixes will have affected these conditions in different ways, stem alternations within the paradigm resulted. Some of these patterns persist and remain productive, rather after the fashion of the Romance verb stem alternations described in various works by Martin Maiden.
The main process was the lenition of a consonant at the boundary between a stressed syllable (primary or secondary) and a closed unstressed syllable. This in turn interacts with other processes of lenition that affected certain consonants between unstressed vowels. In addition, some languages (Estonian & Võro) display the effects of compensatory lengthening followin the loss of final syllables, which may in turn feed into the gradation alternations.
Both nominal and verbal paradigms display gradation. The case study below is restricted to noun inflection, looking at Finnish, Estonian and Võro, which cover the typological range. Livonian shows at most a few traces of this system (Viitso 2007), and so is not discussed here (it has a typologically similar pattern conditioned by an entirely different set of phonological conditions).
Finnish
(Main sources: Karlsson 1999 and Fromm 1982)
The principles behind gradation can be illustrated with Finnish, as it has the most archaic system; indeed, at least some authors treat it as part of morphophonology. Consider the constrast between the unsuffixed nominative, the genitive in -(e)n (the /e/ occurs post-consonantally) and the partitive in *-ta. In the vowel-final stem 'lock', the stem consonant /kk/ precedes an open syllable, and thus is in strong grade, except in the genitive, where the suffix -n closes it. Because of the resulting alternation between a strong-grade nominative/partitive and a weak-grade genitive, this is known as weakening gradation. In the consonant final stem the situation is reversed: genitive -en syllabifies with the stem-final consonant, causing the preceding /tt/ to precede an open syllable, so that the genitive has strong grade. Weak grade is found elsewhere. On account of the nominative~genitive alternation, this is known as strengthening gradation.
suffix |
vowel-final: weakening 'lock' |
consonant-final: strengthening 'queen' |
|
| NOM SG | zero | luk.ko | ku.nin.ga.tar |
| PART SG | *-ta | luk.ko.a > *lúk.ko.ta | ku.nin.ga.tar.ta |
| GEN SG | -(e)n | lu.kon | ku.nin.gat.ta.ren |
Note further that the /t/ of the partitive is lenited between the unstressed penultimate and final syllables, yielding a distinct suffix allomorph. (By default, stress is initial, with secondary stress on alternating syllables, provided these can be parsed as the heads of minimally disyllabic feet.) Because both stem gradation and suffix allomorphy are connected with the (original) syllable structure of the stem, the two go hand-in-hand (weakening gradation implies the -a allomorph of the partitive; the reverse does not obtain, because not all stems display gradation).
Most consonant-final stems have also been affected by lenition (and subsequent deletion) of the stem-final consonant, further obscuring the original system. In 'ring', stem-final /s/ in the genitive has been deleted between unstressed vowels, yielding a final syllable with a long vowel. Other stem-final consonants, such as *h or *ʔ, underwent further changes, being lost in final position and assimilated to an immediately following consonant, as in 'shop'.
| strengthening 'ring' |
strengthening 'shop' |
|
| NOM SG | ren.gas | lii.ke < *liik.keC |
| PART SG | ren.gas.ta | lii.ket.tä < *liik.keC.tä |
| GEN SG | ren.kaan < *rén.ka.han < *rén.ka.san | liik.keen < *liik.ke.Cen |
The two paradigms below illustrate the two main gradation patterns as manifested in Finnish. The weakening type is at least somewhat productive, and may be found with loan words. The strengthening type is not productive. With the weakening type the gradation pattern is still predictable from the phonology of the suffix, though not according to the original conditions: weak grade is found before short closed syllables (whereby the /i/ of the plural suffix is ignored). But the behaviour of the strengthening type is opaque.
| weakening | strengthening | ||||||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | alternative plural |
|||
| NOM | luk.ko | lu.kot | ren.gas | ren.kaat | ren.kaat | ||
| PART | luk.ko.a | luk.ko.ja | ren.gas.ta | ren.kai.ta | ren.kai.ta |
||
| GEN | lu.kon | luk.ko.jen | ren.kaan | ren.kai.den | ren.gas.ten | ||
| ILL | luk.koon | luk.koi.hin | ren.kaa.seen | ren.kai.hin | ren.kai.hin |
||
| ESS | luk.ko.na | luk.koi.na | ren.kaa.na | ren.kai.na | ren.kai.na |
||
| EL | lu.kos.ta | lu.kois.ta | ren.kaas.ta | ren.kais.ta | ren.kais.ta |
||
| INESS | lu.kos.sa | lu.kois.sa | ren.kaas.sa | ren.kais.sa | ren.kais.sa |
||
| ADESS | lu.kol.la | lu.koil.la | ren.kaal.la | ren.kail.la | ren.kail.la |
||
| ABL | lu.kol.ta | lu.koil.ta | ren.kaal.ta | ren.kail.ta | ren.kail.ta |
||
| TRANS | lu.kok.si | lu.koik.si | ren.kaak.si | ren.kaik.si | ren.kaik.si |
||
A further point to note is that consonant-final stems have two alternative ways of forming the genitive plural, which affect gradation: either -den following the plural suffix -i (like the oblique plural cases), or -ten after the plain unsuffixed stem (like the nominative plural). The former yields strong grade (renka-i-den), the latter weak grade (rengas-ten). (Vowel-final stems show the reflex of *-i-den, with allomorphy due to suffixal gradation, parallel to what is found in the partitive, thus *i-en > -jen.)
Estonian
(Main sources Viks 1992 and Blevins 2008)
Estonian has the same two basic patterns as Finnish, but phonological change (e.g. widescale deletion of final vowels, as well as final -n) has obscured the conditioning environment to the point that it is invariably treated as a morphological alternation, and not a product of morphophonology. The phonological realization of gradation is also more diverse, including not only consonant alternations, but also a prosodic alternation. Three degrees of syllable quantity are distinguished: short (quantity 1, or Q1), long (quantity two, or Q2) and overlong (quantity three, or Q3). In the typical gradation alternation, Q2 is the realization of weak grade, Q3 of strong grade, e.g. weak grade linna 'city.gen.sg' ~ strong grade `linna 'city.part.sg'. (Q3 is indicated here by the grave accent, which is not actually part of Estonian orthography.)
Estonian also displays some notable innovations in the way plural forms are constructed, which interact with gradation. Both the innovative pattern and the older pattern are now found. For some nouns the choice is correlated with inflectional class, and in some cases, both patterns are possible, at least nominally. To see the interrelationship between plural formation and suffixation, let us consider a pair of nouns which can be inflected according to both patterns, the weakening-stem noun sõda 'war' (with strong /d/ and weak /j/) and strengthening-stem noun 'thought' (with strong /tt/ and weak /t/). (Note: The terminative, essive, abessive and comitative cases are omitted here. These fall somewhere between case suffixes and enclitics attached to the genitive form.)
| older pattern | |||||
| weakening 'war' |
strengthening 'thought' |
||||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| NOM | sõda | sõjad | mõte | `mõtted | |
| PART | sõda | sõdu | mõtet | `mõtteid | |
| GEN | sõja | sõdade | `mõtte | mõtete | |
| ILL | sõjasse | sõjusse | `mõttesse | `mõtteisse | |
| EL | sõjast | sõjust | `mõttest | `mõtteist | |
| INESS | sõjas | sõjus | `mõttes | `mõtteis | |
| ALL | sõjale | sõjule | `mõttele | `mõtteile | |
| ADESS | sõjal | sõjul | `mõttel | `mõtteil | |
| ABL | sõjalt | sõjult | `mõttelt | `mõtteilt | |
| TRANS | sõjaks | sõjuks | `mõtteks | `mõtteiks | |
| innovative pattern | |||||
| weakening 'war' |
strengthening 'thought' |
||||
| singular | plural |
singular | plural | ||
| NOM | sõda | sõjad | mõte | `mõtted | |
| PART | sõda | sõdasid | mõtet | `mõtteid | |
| GEN | sõja | sõdade | `mõtte | mõtete | |
| ILL | sõjasse | sõdadesse | `mõttesse | mõtetesse | |
| EL | sõjast | sõdadest | `mõttest | mõtetest | |
| INESS | sõjas | sõdades | `mõttes | mõtetes | |
| ALL | sõjale | sõdadele | `mõttele | mõtetele | |
| ADESS | sõjal | sõdadel | `mõttel | mõtetel | |
| ABL | sõjalt | sõdadelt | `mõttelt | mõtetelt | |
| TRANS | sõjaks | sõdadeks | `mõtteks | mõteteks | |
The archaic type matches what is found in Finnish both in the suffixes (though note that the i-suffix in the plural had merged with the stem-final, e.g. *a+i > *oi
u; see Kask 1980: 78) and in the gradation pattern, though with some minor deviations in the weakening type (the spread of the inessive suffix -sse is an innovation).
In the innovative pattern, the non-core cases (i.e. other than the nominative, genitive and partitive) are constructed through the addition of case suffixes to the genitive form, on analogy with the pattern that can be deduced from the singular. (Historic vowel-final stems also display an innovative partitive plural -sid, but this does not affect the gradation alternation.) As a result, the plural non-core cases have the same stem grade as the genitive plural.
In addition to the usual two-way gradation alternation, some nouns display a three-way alternation. This occurs with nouns of the historic vowel-final type, some of which display a reflex of the original illative form ('illative 2') alongside the innovative form in -sse. In synchronic terms, the illative 2 is formed by a prosodic rule (Blevins 2008): taking the partitive form as base, it is prosodically strengthened until it is larger than a minimal prosodic foot. (A minimal prosodic foot is either a disyllable, or a Q3 monosyllable.) For most nouns the rule is vacuous: either they are longer than disyllalbes, or they are disyllables with an initial Q3 syllable. But for a word such as sõda 'war', which is exactly a minimal word, prosodic strengthening must occur, and the illative 2 is `sõtta, with a Q3 initial syllable, and concommitant gemination of the final stem consonant. Note though that this operation is quite independent of the gradation system as such, as it also effects nouns which do not otherwise display a gradation alternation. Historically, it was the result of compensatory lengthening following loss of the illative suffix *-hen (compare Finnish sotaan, Estonian `sotta).
Võro
Main sources: Iva 2007 and 2010)
Võro, a variety of South Estonian with its own literary standard, has the same two basic types seen in Finnish (and Estonian), but adds to this additional patterns as well (see Iva 2010 for an overview). Examples are below (note that q represents a glottal stop, and that Võro has vowel harmony, such that a/ä and õ/e are allophones in inflectional suffixes). As with Finnish and Estonian, there are varying treatments of the plural: like Finnish, there are different allomorphs of the genitive, and like Estonian, there are different ways of structuring the oblique plural forms. Consider first the strenghtening class, where the conditions are somewhat simpler. In the older pattern, the genitive and the oblique cases are formed with -i + case suffixes. These take strong grade. In the innovative pattern, the genitive is formed with -te suffixed directly to the stem, and the oblique cases are based on it (as in Estonian). These take weak grade. (Thus the same allomorphy seen above between the Finnish genitive plurals renkaiden and rengasten is found here, but with ramifications for the oblique plural forms as well.)
| 'piece' | older pattern 'custom' |
innovative pattern 'custom' |
||||||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |||
| NOM | `tükk | tüküq | kommõq | `kombõq | kommõq | `kombõq | ||
| PART | `tükkü | `tükke | kommõt | `kombit | kommõt | `kombit | ||
| GEN | tükü | `tükke | `kombõ | `kombide | `kombõ | kommõtõ | ||
| INESS | tükün | tüken | `kombõn | `kombin | `kombõn | kommõtõn | ||
| EL | tüküst | tükest | `kombõst | `kombist | `kombõst | kommõtõst | ||
| ALL | tüküle | tükele | `kombõlõ | `kombile | `kombõlõ | kommõtõle | ||
| ADESS | tükül | tükel | `kombõl | `kombil | `kombõl | kommõtõl | ||
| ABL | tükült | tükelt | `kombõlt | `kombilt | `kombõlt | kommõtõlt | ||
| TRANS | tüküs | tükes | `kombõs | `kombis | `kombõs | kommõtõs | ||
| TERM | tüküniq | tükeniq | `kombõniq | `kombiniq | `kombõniq | kommõtõniq | ||
| ABESS | tüküldäq | tükeldäq | `kombõldaq | `kombildaq | `kombõldaq | kommõtõldaq | ||
| ILL | `tükkü | `tükke(he) | `kombõhe | `kombihe | `kombõhe | kommõtõhe | ||
With weakening stem nouns, the possiblity of dual patterning exists only for prosodically light stems. For the inflectional class that these nouns belong to, there is only a single genitive plural form; the variation consists in whether the oblique cases share the same stem grade as the genitive singular, or are based on the genitive plural form. (On the variation within the strong grade forms of light stems, see below.)
| heavy stem (weakening) 'piece' |
light stem (strengthening) older pattern 'war' |
light stem (strengthening) innovative pattern 'war' |
||||||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |||
| NOM | `tükk | tüküq | sõda | sõaq | sõda | sõaq | ||
| PART | `tükkü | `tükke | sõta | sõto | sõta | sõto | ||
| GEN | tükü | `tükke | sõa | sõto | sõa | sõto | ||
| INESS | tükün | tüken | sõan | sõon | sõan | sõton | ||
| EL | tüküst | tükest | sõast | sõost | sõast | sõtost | ||
| ALL | tüküle | tükele | sõale | sõole | sõale | sõtole | ||
| ADESS | tükül | tükel | sõal | sõol | sõal | sõtol | ||
| ABL | tükült | tükelt | sõalt | sõolt | sõalt | sõtolt | ||
| TRANS | tüküs | tükes | sõas | sõos | sõas | sõtos | ||
| TERM | tüküniq | tükeniq | sõaniq | sõoniq | sõaniq | sõtoniq | ||
| ABESS | tüküldäq | tükeldäq | sõaldäq | sõoldäq | sõaldäq | sõtoldäq | ||
| ILL | `tükkü | `tükke(he) | `sõtta | `sõtto(he) | `sõtta | `sõtto(he) | ||
But the scope of gradation in Võro is on the whole greater than in either Estonian or Finnish. A major difference involves nouns whose stems end in -CV, which typically display gemination in the partitive singular. (Note that orthographic k, p, t represent short geminates; their non-geminate counterparts are orthographic g, b, d.) As with the illative (see the comments above on the Estonian illative 2), it was the result of compensatory lengthening (Iva 2010); presumably the loss of the open-syllable partitive suffix and closed-syllable illative yielded different results. Compare the corresponding partial paradigms of 'war':
| Finnish | Estonian | Võro | |
| NOM SG | sota | sõda | sõda |
| PART SG | sotaa | sõda | sõta |
| GEN SG | sotan | sõja | sõa |
| ILL SG | sotaan | `sõtta | `sõtta |
The result in Võro is a four-way gradation alternation in light-stem verbs of the weakening class. But the effects in Võro are not merely local. First, in nouns that were not originally affected by gradation, this gemination has been propogated throughout the paradigm according to the weakening gradation pattern. Significantly, though, the nominative remains unaffected, suggesting that this form does not participate directly in the implicational network. Light stem nouns show the same dual patterning as seen above:
| 'chicken' | older pattern | innovative pattern | |||
| singular | plural |
singular | plural | ||
| NOM | kana | kanaq | kana | kanaq | |
| PART | kanna | kanno | kanna | kanno | |
| GEN | kana | kanno | kana | kanno | |
| INESS | kanan | kanon | kanan | kannon | |
| EL | kanast | kanost | kanast | kannost | |
| ALL | kanale | kanole | kanale | kannole | |
| ADESS | kanal | kanol | kanal | kannol | |
| ABL | kanalt | kanolt | kanalt | kannolt | |
| TRANS | kanas | kanos | kanas | kannos | |
| TERM | kananiq | kanoniq | kananiq | kannoniq | |
| ABESS | kanaldäq | kanoldäq | kanaldäq | kannoldäq | |
| ILL | `kanna | `kanno(he) | `kanna | `kanno(he) | |
The separate status of the nominative singular is also demonstrated by a large class of nouns where compensatory lengthening has affected just this forms. These were originally trisyllabic vocalic stems with a Q1 initial syllable that lost the stem-final vowel in word-final position in the nominative singular. Both Estonian and Võro were affected by this vowel loss, but only in Võro did it lead to compensatory lenghthening. However, the resulting gradation alternation remains restricted to this form, and has not been propogated to the rest of the paradigm. Compare the partial paradigms below:
| 'harbor' | Finnish | Estonian | Võro |
| NOM SG | satama | sadam | satam |
| PART SG | satamaa | sadamat | sadamat |
| GEN SG | sataman | sadama | sadama |
The examples of weakening gradation shown so far correspond to what was also seen in Finnish and Estonian, where this pattern only occurs with nouns with a zero (or vocalic) partitive singular. But in Võro the pattern spreads further. A possible point of departure for this may have been trisyllabic vowel-final stems. In Finnish these behave like the disyllabic stems seen so far, but with weakening gradation manifested at the boundary between two unstressed syllables; the standard assumption is that this was not phonologically motivated, but rather an analogical extension of gradation (Fromm 1982: 52). Estonian, on the other hand, lacks this pattern: the corresponding stems lack gradation, and take a t-partitive singular. Võro shares properties of both: it has gradation, like Finnish, but takes the t-partitive.
| 'book' | Finnish | Estonian | Võro |
| NOM SG | raamattu | raamat | raamat |
| PART SG | raamattua | raamatut | raamatut |
| GEN SG | raamatun | raamatu | raamadu |
This is how the core cases behave, but things are rather more complex in the rest of the paradigm, though. Although the general rule in both Estonian and Võro is that the singular oblique cases are formed from the genitive, Iva (2010) gives here the allative singular form raamatulõ, rather than the expected raamadulõ. In fact, there is considerable variation: a Google search of the domain www.umaleht.ee/ (14/3/2013), of the Võro language newspaper Uma Leht (where the site contents are entirely in Võro), gives the following picture (cases with one or zero hits are omitted):
| 'book' | singular | plural | typical paradigm | |||
| -t- | -d- | -t- | -d- |
singular | plural | |
| NOM | 1830 | 0 | 0 | 3 | raamat | raamaduq |
| PART | 784 | 4 | 213 | 0 | raamatu | raamatit |
| GEN | 6 | 846 | 20 | 0 | raamadu | raamatidõ |
| INESS | 114 | 5 | 3 | 0 | raamatun | raamatin |
| EL | 59 | 3 | 26 | 0 | raamatust | raamatist |
| ALL | 13 | 1 | 2 | 0 | raamatulõ | raamatilõ |
| TRANS | 4 | 1 | 2 | 0 | raamatus | raamatis |
| ILL | 43 | 1 | 0 | 0 | raamatuhe | ------------ |
The evidence here for the nominative plural is thin, but examination of other online sources (the Võro language Wikipedia, or the Võro Language Institute) reveals only raamaduq, not *raamatuq. Overall, this strongly suggests that weakening gradation is reliably found only in the genitive singular and nominative plural, while the remainder of the singular cases have been levelled to the nominative (or partitive) stem.¹
The sorts of nouns that this pattern has been extended to include borrowings such as poliitiga 'politics' and muusiga 'music'. A cursory search of the Uma Leht site suggests even greater variation here; the numbers for any one lexeme are not sufficient to get a clear picture. (In addition, the words tend to be the sort which do not occur in the plural.)
Notes
1: For raamat, the Võro Wikipedia site is less categorical than Uma Leht, with the following figures for the singular:
| -t- | -d- | |
| NOM | 73 | 0 |
| PART | 11 | 1 |
| GEN | 0 | 25 |
| ILL | 2 | 0 |
| INESS | 13 | 35 |
| EL | 7 | 7 |
| ALL | 0 | 2 |
| TRANS | 4 | 0 |
References
Blevins, James P. 2008. Declension classes in Estonian. Linguistica Uralica XLIV. 241--267.
Fromm, Hans. 1982. Finnische Grammatik. Heidelberg: Winter.
Iva, Sulev. 2007. Võru kirjakeele sõnamuutmissüsteem. PhD thesis, University of Tartu. Online: https://dspace.utlib.ee/dspace/bitstream/10062/4860/1/iva_sulev.pdf.
Iva, Sulev. 2010. Grade Alternation in Võro South Estonian. Linguistica Uralica 46.3. 161-174.
Karlsson, Fred. 1999. Finnish: an essential grammar. London: Routledge.
Kask. Arnold. 1980. Eesti keele ajalooline grammatika (Volume 2). Tartu Riiklik Ülikool.
Viks, Ülle. 1992. Väike võrmisõnastik (volume 1). Tallinn: Eesti Teaduste Akadeemia, Keele ja Kirjanduse Instituut