Limbu
Nouns table
| gloss | layer | stem phonology | sg abs | sg def abs | pl abs | sg erg | sg def erg | pl erg | sg ins | sg def ins | pl ins | sg gen | sg def gen | pl gen | sg voc | sg def voc | pl voc | sg loc | sg def loc | pl loc |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| wing | lexeme | final /p t k ʔ/ | lap | lapʔin | ||||||||||||||||
| wing | suffix | final /p t k ʔ/ | zero | ʔin | zero | le | ʔille | le | le | ʔille | le | le | ʔille | le | e | e | se | ʔo | ʔo | ʔo |
| wing | stem | final /p t k ʔ/ | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem |
| moon | lexeme | final /b/ | lab | labɛn | ||||||||||||||||
| moon | suffix | final /b/ | zero | ɛn | zero | le | ʔille | le | le | ʔille | le | le | ʔille | le | e | e | se | ʔo | ʔo | ʔo |
| moon | stem | final /b/ | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem |
| house | lexeme | final nasal | him | himmin | ||||||||||||||||
| house | suffix | final nasal | zero | ( )in | zero | le | ʔille | le | le | ʔille | le | le | ʔille | le | e | e | se | ʔo | ʔo | ʔo |
| house | stem | final nasal | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #double | #double | #double | #stem | #stem | #stem |
| man | lexeme | final vowel | məna | məna:n | ||||||||||||||||
| man | suffix | final vowel | zero | n | zero | lle | ʔille | le | lle | ʔille | re | lle/le | ʔille | le | e/re | e/re | se/re | ʔo | ʔo | ʔo |
| man | stem | final vowel | #stem | #length | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem |
| old man | lexeme | final derivational -a | kappo:ba | kappo:bɛn | ||||||||||||||||
| old man | suffix | final derivational -a | zero | n | zero | lle | lle | le | lle | lle | le | le | le | le/re | e/re | e/re | se/re | ʔo | ʔo | ʔo |
| old man | stem | final derivational -a | #stem | #front | #stem | #front | #front | #stem | #front | #front | #stem | #front | #front | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem |
Verbs intransitive table
| gloss | layer | 1 excl sg non-pst | 1 excl du non-pst | 1 excl pl non-pst | 1 incl du non-pst | 1 incl pl non-pst | 2 sg non-pst | 2 du non-pst | 2 pl non-pst | 3 sg non-pst | 3 du non-pst | 3 pl non-pst | 1 excl sg pst | 1 excl du pst | 1 excl pl pst | 1 incl du pst | 1 incl pl pst | 2 sg pst | 2 du pst | 2 pl pst | 3 sg pst | 3 du pst | 3 pl pst | 1 excl sg neg non-pst | 1 excl du neg non-pst | 1 excl pl neg non-pst | 1 incl du neg non-pst | 1 incl pl neg non-pst | 2 sg neg non-pst | 2 du neg non-pst | 2 pl neg non-pst | 3 sg neg non-pst | 3 du neg non-pst | 3 pl neg non-pst | 1 excl sg neg pst opt1 excl | 1 excl sg neg pst opt2 | 1 excl du neg pst | 1 excl pl neg pst | 1 incl du neg pst | 1 incl pl neg pst | 2 sg neg pst | 2 du neg pst | 2 pl neg pst | 3 sg neg pst | 3 du neg pst | 3 pl neg pst |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| return | lexeme | nu:ŋʔɛ | nu:ŋsige | nu:ksige | anu:ŋsi | anu:ŋ | kɛnu:ŋ | kɛnu:ŋsi | kɛnu:ksi | nu:ŋ | nu:ŋsi | mɛnu:ŋ | nu:ksaŋ | nu:ksɛtchige | nu:ŋmʔna | anu:ksɛtchi | anu:ksɛ | kɛnu:ksɛ | kɛnu:ksɛtchi | kɛnu:ksi | nu:ksɛ | nu:ksɛtchi | mɛnu:ksɛ | mɛnu:ŋɛn | mɛnu:ŋsigɛn | mɛnu:ksigɛn | annu:ŋsin | annu:ŋnɛn | kɛnnu:ŋnɛn | kɛnu:ŋsin | kɛnu:ksin | mɛnu:ŋnɛn | mɛnu:ŋsin | mɛnnu:ŋnɛn | mɛnu:ksaŋnɛn | mɛnu:ksaŋnɛn | mɛnu:ksɛtchigɛn | mɛnu:ŋmʔna | annu:ksɛtchin | annu:ksɛn | kɛnnu:ksɛn | kɛnnu:ksɛtchin | kɛnnu:ksin | mɛnu:ksɛn | mɛnu:ksɛtchin | mɛnnu:ksɛn |
| return | prefix | zero | zero | zero | a | a | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | mɛ | zero | zero | zero | a | a | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | an | an | kɛn | kɛ | kɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | an | an | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn |
| return | suffix | ʔɛ | sige | ige | si | zero | zero | si | so | zero | si | zero | aŋ | ɛtchige | mʔna | ɛtchi | ɛ | ɛ | ɛtchi | i | ɛ | ɛtchi | ɛ | ɛn | sigɛn | igɛn | sin | nɛn | nɛn | sin | in | nɛn | sin | nɛn | aŋnɛn | aŋnɛn | ɛtchigɛn | mʔna | ɛtchin | ɛn | ɛn | ɛtchin | in | ɛn | ɛtchin | ɛn |
| return | stem | #stem | #stem | #mod | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #mod | #stem | #stem | #stem | #mod | #mod | #stem | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #stem | #stem | #mod | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #mod | #stem | #stem | #stem | #mod | #mod | #mod | #stem | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod | #mod |
| perform | lexeme | ca:ʔɛ | ca:si | ce:ʔige | adza:si | adza: | kɛdza: | kɛdza:si | kɛdzaʔi | ca: | ca:si | mɛdza: | cya:ŋ | ce:si | ca:mʔna | adze:si | adze: | kɛdze: | kɛdze:si | kɛdze:ʔi | ce: | ce:si | mɛdze: | mɛdza:ʔɛn | mɛdza:sin | mɛdze:ʔigɛn | andza:sin | amdza:nɛn | kɛndza:nɛn | kɛndza:sin | kɛndza:ʔin | mɛdza:nɛn | mɛdza:sin | mɛndza:nɛn | mɛdzya:ŋnɛn | mɛndza:banŋ | mɛdze:sin | mɛndza:mʔna | andze:sin | amdze:nɛn | kɛndze:nɛn | kɛndze:sin | kɛndze:ʔin | mɛdze:nɛn | mɛdze:sin | mɛndze:nɛn |
| perform | prefix | zero | zero | zero | a | a | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | mɛ | zero | zero | zero | a | a | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | an | am | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | mɛ | mɛn | mɛ | mɛ | an | am | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ |
| perform | suffix | ʔɛ | si | ige | si | zero | zero | si | i | zero | si | zero | aŋ | si | mʔna | si | zero | zero | si | i | zero | si | zero | ɛn | sin | igɛn | sin | nɛn | nɛn | sin | in | nɛn | sin | nɛn | ŋnɛn | banŋ | sin | mʔna | sin | nɛn | nɛn | sin | in | nɛn | sin | nɛn |
| perform | stem | #stem 1 | #stem 1 | #stem 2 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 1 | #stem 1 | #stem 3 | #stem 4 | #stem 2 | #stem 1 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 2 | #stem 2 | #stem 5 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 5 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 3 | #stem 6 | #stem 3 | #stem 5 | #stem 3 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 | #stem 5 |
| return | lexeme | lɛŋsiŋʔɛ | lɛŋnɛtchige | lɛŋsiŋige | alɛŋnɛtchi | aleŋsiŋ | kɛleŋsiŋ | kɛleŋnɛtchi | kɛleŋsiŋi | leŋsiŋ | leŋnɛtchi | mɛleŋsiŋ | lɛŋsiŋaŋ | lɛŋnɛtchige | lɛŋsiŋŋʔna | alɛŋnɛtchi | alɛŋsiŋɛ | kɛlɛŋsiŋɛ | kɛleŋnɛtchi | kɛleŋsiŋi | lɛŋsiŋɛ | leŋnɛtchi | mɛlɛŋsiŋɛ | mɛlɛŋsiŋʔɛn | mɛlɛŋnɛtchigɛn | mɛlɛŋsiŋigɛn | alɛŋnɛtchin | alleŋsiŋɛn | kɛlleŋsiŋɛn | kɛlleŋnɛtchin | kɛlleŋsiŋin | mɛlɛŋsiŋnɛn | mɛlɛŋnɛtchin | mɛllɛŋsiŋnɛn | mɛlɛŋsiŋaŋnɛn | mɛlɛŋsiŋaŋnɛn | mɛlɛŋnɛtchigɛn | mɛllɛŋsiŋŋʔna | alɛŋnɛtchin | allɛŋsiŋɛn | kɛllɛŋsiŋɛn | kɛlleŋnɛtchin | kɛnleŋsiŋin | mɛlɛŋsiŋɛn | mɛlɛŋnɛtchin | mɛllɛŋsiŋɛn |
| return | prefix | zero | zero | zero | a | a | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | mɛ | zero | zero | zero | a | a | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | a | an | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | a | an | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn |
| return | suffix | siŋʔɛ | nɛtchige | siŋige | nɛtchi | siŋ | siŋ | nɛtchi | siŋi | siŋ | nɛtchi | siŋ | siŋaŋ | nɛtchige | siŋŋʔna | nɛtchi | siŋɛ | siŋɛ | nɛtchi | siŋi | siŋɛ | nɛtchi | siŋɛ | siŋʔɛn | nɛtchigɛn | siŋigɛn | nɛtchin | siŋɛn | siŋɛn | nɛtchin | siŋin | siŋnɛn | nɛtchin | siŋnɛn | siŋaŋnɛn | siŋaŋnɛn | nɛtchigɛn | siŋŋʔna | nɛtchin | siŋɛn | siŋɛn | nɛtchin | siŋin | siŋɛn | nɛtchin | siŋɛn |
| return | stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem | #stem |
Verbs transitive table
| gloss | layer | 1 excl sg > 2 sg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 2 du non-pst | 1 excl sg > 2 pl non-pst | 1 excl sg >3 sg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 3 pl non-pst | 1 incl du > 3 sg non-pst | 1 incl du > 3 pl non-pst | 1 excl pl > 2 non-pst | 1 excl du > 3 sg non-pst | 1 excl du > 3 pl non-pst | 1 incl pl > 3 sg non-pst | 1 incl pl > 3 pl non-pst | 1 excl pl > 3 sg non-pst | 1 excl pl > 3 pl non-pst | 2 sg > 1 excl sg non-pst | 2 > 1 excl pl non-pst | 2 pl > 1 excl sg non-pst | 2 sg > 3 sg non-pst | 2 sg > 3 pl non-pst | 2 du > 3 sg non-pst | 2 du > 3 pl non-pst | 2 pl > 3 sg non-pst | 2 pl > 3 pl non-pst | 3 sg > 1 excl sg non-pst | 3 sg > 1 incl du non-pst | 3 sg > 1 excl du non-pst | 3 sg > 1 incl pl non-pst | 3 sg > 1 excl pl non-pst | 3 sg > 2 sg non-pst | 3 sg > 2 du non-pst | 3 sg > 2 pl non-pst | 3 sg > 3 sg non-pst | 3 sg > 3 pl non-pst | 3 du > 3 sg non-pst | 3 du > 3 pl non-pst | 3 pl > 1 excl sg non-pst | 3 pl > 1 incl du non-pst | 3 pl > 1 excl du non-pst | 3 pl > 1 incl pl non-pst | 3 > 1 excl pl non-pst | 3 pl > 2 sg non-pst | 3 pl > 2 du non-pst | 3 pl > 2 pl non-pst | 3 pl > 3 sg non-pst | 3 pl > 3 pl non-pst | 1 excl sg >2 sg pst | 1 excl sg > 2 du pst | 1 excl sg > 2 pl pst | 1 excl sg > 3 sg pst | 1 excl sg > 3 pl pst | 1 incl du > 3 sg pst | 1 incl du > 3 pl pst | 1 excl pl > 2 pst | 1 excl du > 3 sg pst | 1 excl du > 3 pl pst | 1 incl pl > 3 sg pst | 1 incl pl > 3 pl pst | 1 excl pl > 3 sg pst | 1 excl pl > 3 pl pst | 2 sg > 1 excl sg pst | 2 > 1 excl pl pst | 2 pl > 2 sg pst | 2 sg > 3 sg pst | 2 sg > 3 pl pst | 2 du > 3 sg pst | 2 du > 3 pl pst | 2 pl > 3 sg pst | 2 pl > 3 pl pst | 3 sg > 1 excl sg pst | 3 sg > 1 incl du pst | 3 sg > 1 excl du pst | 3 sg > 1 incl pl pst | 3 sg > 1 excl pl pst | 3 sg > 2 sg pst | 3 sg > 2 du pst | 3 sg > 2 pl pst | 3 sg > 3 sg pst | 3 sg > 3 pl pst | 3 du > 3 sg pst | 3 du > 3 pl pst | 3 pl > 1 excl sg pst | 3 pl > 1 incl du pst | 3 pl > 1 excl du pst | 3 pl > 1 incl pl pst | 3 > 1 excl pl pst | 3 pl > 2 sg pst | 3 pl > 2 du pst | 3 pl > 2 pl pst | 3 pl > 3 sg pst | 3 pl > 3pl | 1 excl sg > 2 sg neg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 2 du neg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 2 pl neg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 3 sg neg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 3 pl neg non-pst | 1 incl du > 3 sg neg non-pst | 1 incl du > 3 pl neg non-pst | 1 excl pl > 2 neg non-pst | 1 excl du > 3 sg neg non-pst | 1 excl du > 3 pl neg non-pst | 1 incl pl > 3 sg neg non-pst | 1 incl pl > 3 pl neg non-pst | 1 excl pl > 3 sg neg non-pst | 1 excl pl > 3 pl neg non-pst | 2 sg > 1 excl sg neg non-pst | 2 > 1 excl pl neg non-pst | 2 pl > 1 exclsg neg non-pst | 2 sg > 3 sg neg non-pst | 2 sg > 3 pl neg non-pst | 2 du > 3 sg neg non-pst | 2 du > 3 pl neg non-pst | 2 pl > 3 sg neg non-pst | 2 pl > 3 pl neg non-pst | 3sg>1 exclsg neg non-pst | 3 sg > 1 incl du neg non-pst | 3 sg > 1 excl du neg non-pst | 3 sg > 1 incl pl neg non-pst | 3 sg > 1 excl pl neg non-pst | 3 sg > 2 sg neg non-pst | 3 sg > 2 du neg non-pst | 3 sg > 2 pl neg non-pst | 3 sg > 3 sg neg non-pst | 3 sg > 3 pl neg non-pst | 3 du > 3 sg neg non-pst | 3 du > 3 pl neg non-pst | 3 pl > 1 excl sg neg non-pst | 3 pl > 1 incl du neg non-pst | 3 pl > 1 excl du neg non-pst | 3pl>1 incl pl neg non-pst | 3 > 1 excl pl neg non-pst | 3 pl > 2 sg neg non-pst | 3 pl > 2 du neg non-pst | 3 pl > 2 pl neg non-pst | 3 pl > 3 sg neg non-pst | 3 pl > 3 pl neg non-pst | 1 excl sg > 2 sg neg pst | 1 excl sg > 2 du neg pst | 1 excl sg > 2 pl neg pst | 1 excl sg > 3 sg neg pst | 1 excl sg > 3 pl neg pst | 1 incl du > 3 sg neg pst | 1 incl du > 3 pl neg pst | 1 excl pl > 2 neg pst | 1 excl du > 3 sg neg pst | 1 excl du > 3 pl neg pst | 1 incl pl > 3 sg neg pst | 1 incl pl > 3 pl neg pst | 1 excl pl > 3 sg neg pst | 1 excl pl > 3 pl neg pst | 2 > 1 excl pl neg pst | 2 pl > 1 excl sg neg pst | 2 sg > 3 sg neg pst | 2 sg > 3 pl neg pst | 2 du > 3 sg neg pst | 2 du > 3 pl neg pst | 2 pl > 3 sg neg pst | 2 pl > 3 pl neg pst | 3 sg > 1 excl sg neg pst | 3 sg > 1 incl du neg pst | 3 sg > 1 excl du neg pst | 3 sg > 1 incl pl neg pst | 3 sg > 1 excl pl neg pst | 3 sg > 2 sg neg pst | 3 sg > 2 du neg pst | 3 sg > 2 pl neg pst | 3 sg > 3 sg neg pst | 3 sg > 3 pl neg pst | 3 du > 3 sg neg pst | 3 du > 3 pl neg pst | 3 pl > 1 excl sg neg pst | 3 pl > 1 incl du neg pst | 3 pl > 1 excl du neg pst | 3 pl > 1 incl pl neg pst | 3 > 1 excl pl neg pst | 3 pl > 2 sg neg pst | 3 pl > 2 du neg pst | 3 pl > 2pl neg pst | 3 pl > 3 sg neg pst | 3 pl > 3 pl neg pst |
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| teach | lexeme | huʔnɛ | huʔnɛtchiŋ | huʔniŋ | huʔruŋ | huʔruŋsiŋ | ahuʔsu | ahuʔsusi | huʔnɛtchinge | huʔsuge | huʔsusige | ahuʔrum | ahuʔrumsim | huʔrumbe | huʔrumsimbe | kɛhuʔʔɛ | agɛhuʔ | agɛhuʔ | kɛhuʔru | kɛhuʔrusi | kɛhuʔsu | kɛhuʔsusi | kɛhuʔrum | kɛhuʔrumsim | huʔʔɛ | ahuʔsi | huʔsige | ahuʔ | huʔrige | kɛhuʔ | kɛhuʔsi | kɛhuʔri | huʔru | huʔrusi | huʔsu | huʔsusi | mɛhuʔʔɛ | amhuʔsi | mɛhuʔsige | amhuʔ | mɛhuʔrige | kɛmhuʔ | kɛmhuʔsi | kɛmhuʔri | mɛhuʔru | mɛhuʔrusi | huʔnɛ | huʔnɛtchiŋ | huʔniŋ | huʔruŋ | huʔruŋsiŋ | ahuʔrɛtchu | ahuʔrɛtchusi | huʔnɛtchinge | huʔrɛtchuge | huʔrɛtchusige | ahuʔrum | ahuʔrumsim | huʔmʔna | huʔmʔnasi | kɛhuʔraŋ | agɛhuʔrɛ | agɛhuʔrɛ | kɛhuʔru | kɛhuʔrusi | kɛhuʔrɛtchu | kɛhuʔrɛtchusi | kɛhuʔrum | kɛhuʔrumsim | huʔraŋ | ahuʔrɛtchi | huʔrɛtchige | ahuʔrɛ | huʔrige | kɛhuʔrɛ | kɛhuʔrɛtchi | kɛhuʔri | huʔru | huʔrusi | huʔrɛtchu | huʔrɛtchusi | mɛhuʔraŋ | amhuʔrɛtchi | mɛhuʔrɛtchige | amhuʔrɛ | mɛhuʔrige | kɛmhuʔrɛ | kɛmhuʔrɛtchi | kɛmhuʔri | kɛmhuʔru | kɛmhuʔrusi | mɛhuʔnɛn | mɛhuʔnɛtchiŋnɛn | mɛhuʔniŋnɛn | mɛhuʔʔɛn | mɛhuʔʔɛnchin | anhuʔsun | anhuʔsusin | mɛhuʔnɛtchigɛn | mɛhuʔsugɛn | mɛhuʔsusigɛn | anhuʔrumnɛn | anhuʔrumsimnɛn | mɛhuʔrumbɛn | mɛhuʔrumsimbɛn | kɛnhuʔʔɛn | agɛnhuʔnɛn | agɛnhuʔnɛn | kɛnhuʔrun | kɛnhuʔrusin | kɛnhuʔsun | kɛnhuʔsusin | kɛnhuʔrumnɛn | kɛnhuʔrumsimnɛn | mɛhuʔʔɛn | anhuʔsin | mɛhuʔsigen | anhuʔnɛn | mɛhuʔrigen | kɛnhuʔnɛn | kɛnhuʔsin | kɛnhuʔrin | mɛhuʔrun | mɛhuʔrusin | mɛhuʔsun | mɛhuʔsusin | mɛnhuʔʔɛn | amɛnhuʔsin | mɛnhuʔsigɛn | amɛnhuʔnɛn | mɛnhuʔrigɛn | kɛmɛnhuʔnɛn | kɛmɛnhuʔsin | kɛmɛnhuʔrin | mɛnhuʔrun | mɛnhuʔrusin | mɛhuʔnɛn | mɛhuʔnɛtchiŋnɛn | mɛhuʔniŋnɛn | mɛnhuʔbaŋ | mɛnhuʔbaŋsiŋ | anhuʔrɛtchun | anhuʔrɛtchusin | mɛhuʔnɛtchigɛn | mɛhuʔretchugɛn | mɛhuʔretchusigɛn | anhuʔrumnɛn | anhuʔrumsimnɛn | mɛnhuʔmʔna | mɛnhuʔmʔnasi | agɛnhuʔrɛn | agɛnhuʔrɛn | kɛnhuʔrun | kɛnhuʔrusin | kɛnhuʔrɛtchun | kɛnhuʔrɛtchusin | kɛnhuʔrumnɛn | kɛnhuʔrumsimnɛn | mɛhuʔraŋnɛn | anhuʔrɛtchin | mɛhuʔrɛtchigen | anhuʔrɛn | mɛhuʔrigen | kɛnhuʔrɛn | kɛnhuʔrɛtchin | kɛnhuʔrin | mɛhuʔrun | mɛhuʔrusin | mɛhuʔrɛtchun | mɛhuʔrɛtchusin | mɛnhuʔraŋnɛn | amɛnhuʔrɛtchin | mɛnhuʔrɛtchingen | amɛnhuʔrɛn | mɛnhuʔrigɛn | kɛmɛnhuʔrɛn | kɛmɛnhuʔretchin | kɛmɛnhuʔrin | mɛnhuʔrun | mɛnhuʔrusin |
| teach | prefix | zero | zero | zero | zero | zero | a | a | zero | zero | zero | a | a | zero | zero | kɛ | agɛ | agɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | a | zero | a | zero | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | zero | zero | mɛ | am | mɛ | am | mɛ | kɛm | kɛm | kɛm | mɛ | mɛ | zero | zero | zero | zero | zero | a | a | zero | zero | zero | a | a | zero | zero | kɛ | agɛ | agɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | a | zero | a | zero | kɛ | kɛ | kɛ | zero | zero | zero | zero | mɛ | am | mɛ | am | mɛ | kɛm | kɛm | kɛm | kɛm | kɛm | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | an | an | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | an | an | mɛ | mɛ | kɛn | agɛn | agɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | an | mɛ | an | mɛ | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | amɛn | mɛn | amɛn | mɛn | kɛmɛn | kɛmɛn | kɛmɛn | mɛn | mɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | mɛn | an | an | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | an | an | mɛ | mɛ | agɛn | agɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | an | mɛ | an | mɛ | kɛn | kɛn | kɛn | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛ | mɛn | amɛn | mɛn | amɛn | mɛn | kɛmɛn | kɛmɛn | kɛmɛn | mɛn | mɛn |
| teach | suffix | nɛ | nɛtchiŋ | niŋ | ruŋ | ruŋsiŋ | su | susi | nɛtchinge | suge | susige | rum | rumsim | rumbe | rumsimbe | ʔɛ | zero | zero | ru | rusi | su | susi | rum | rumsim | ʔɛ | si | sige | zero | rige | zero | si | ri | ru | rusi | su | susi | ʔɛ | si | sige | zero | rige | zero | si | ri | ru | rusi | nɛ | nɛtchiŋ | niŋ | ruŋ | ruŋsiŋ | rɛtchu | rɛtchusi | nɛtchinge | rɛtchuge | rɛtchusige | rum | rumsim | mʔna | mʔnasi | raŋ | rɛ | rɛ | ru | rusi | rɛtchu | rɛtchusi | rum | rumsim | raŋ | rɛtchi | rɛtchige | rɛ | rige | rɛ | rɛtchi | ri | ru | rusi | rɛtchu | rɛtchusi | raŋ | rɛtchi | rɛtchige | rɛ | rige | rɛ | rɛtchi | ri | ru | rusi | nɛn | nɛtchiŋnɛn | niŋnɛn | ʔɛn | ʔɛnchin | sun | susin | nɛtchigɛn | sugɛn | susigɛn | rumnɛn | rumsimnɛn | rumbɛn | rumsimbɛn | ʔɛn | nɛn | nɛn | run | rusin | sun | susin | rumnɛn | rumsimnɛn | ʔɛn | sin | sigen | nɛn | rigen | nɛn | sin | rin | run | rusin | sun | susin | ʔɛn | sin | sigɛn | nɛn | rigɛn | nɛn | sin | rin | run | rusin | nɛn | nɛtchiŋnɛn | niŋnɛn | baŋ | baŋsiŋ | rɛtchun | rɛtchusin | nɛtchigɛn | retchugɛn | retchusigɛn | rumnɛn | rumsimnɛn | mʔna | mʔnasi | rɛn | rɛn | run | rusin | rɛtchun | rɛtchusin | rumnɛn | rumsimnɛn | raŋnɛn | rɛtchin | rɛtchigen | rɛn | rigen | rɛn | rɛtchin | rin | run | rusin | rɛtchun | rɛtchusin | raŋnɛn | rɛtchin | rɛtchingen | rɛn | rigɛn | rɛn | retchin | rin | run | rusin |
Limbu notes
with historical (Western) Kiranti notes
Nouns
- Plural suffix is optional; dependent on semantic inference of verb form, and on emphatic choice
- In nasal-final nouns, the /ʔ/ may assimilate with place of preceding nasal in ABS suffix
- In vowel-final nouns, the ABS suffix lengthens the final vowel
- In stems ending in derivational --a, the ABS suffix fronts this to /ɛ/
- When ABS and GEN suffixes are combined, the GEN /le/ is fronted to /lɛ/ and the ABS is reduced to /n/
- If the plural marker /haʔ/ is realised, then the ERG suffix is realised as [re]; if not, it stays as /le/. e.g. (assumed) lable // labhaʔre = moon-P-ERG
- Instrumental and ergative nominative suffixes are identical
Verbs
- In the regular stem intransitives, /mŋ/ becomes [ŋŋ]
- In the alternating stem intransitives
- #stem 1 is /ca:/
- #stem 2 is /ce/
- #stem 3 is /dza:/
- #stem 4 is /cya:/
- #stem 5 is /dze:/
- #stem 6 is /dzya:/
- In the alternating stem intransitives, /aa/ becomes [a:]
- In the relfexives, /nl/ becomes [ll]
References
Van Driem, George. 1987. A grammar of Limbu. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wiedert, Alfons and Subba, B. 1985. Concise Limbu grammar and dictionary. Amsterdam: Lobster.
Historical Western Kiranti notes
Data from Hayu (Western Kiranti, and thus from a sister branch to Eastern Kiranti Limbu) allows for some interesting historical observations on argument marking, given the changes that appear to have occurred since its first description. It was described by Michailovsky (1988) and earlier by Hodgson (1880). Transitive verbs may mark both arguments. The paradigm for person and number markers for intransitive and transitive verbs is given below. In some instances there are distinct non-past and past tense forms; where this is the case, the non-past form is given first, and the past tense form underneath. The morpheme division largely follows that proposed by Michailovsky (see the notes following the table).
| Hayu verbal person/number suffixes (where two forms are given, they are non-past and past) | ||||||||||
| subj. |
object | |||||||||
| none | 1SG | 1DU | 1PL | 2SG | 2DU | 2PL | 3SG | 3DU | 3PL | |
| 1SG | -ŋo -sʊŋ |
-no | -no-tshe | -no-ne | -(sʊ)ŋ -kuŋ |
-(sʊ)ŋ-tshe -kuŋ-tshe |
-(sʊ)ŋ-me -kuŋ-me |
|||
| 1DU | -tshok -tshoŋ |
-tshok -tshoŋ |
||||||||
| 1PL | -kok -(ki)koŋ |
-kok -(ki)koŋ |
||||||||
| 2SG | -Ø | -ŋo -sʊŋ |
-tshok -tshoŋ |
-kok -(ki)koŋ |
-Ø -ko |
-me -ko-me |
||||
| 2DU | -tshik -tshe |
-ŋo-tshe -sʊŋ-tshe |
-tshik -tshe |
|||||||
| 2PL | -ne | -ŋo-ne -sʊŋ-ne |
-ne | |||||||
| 3SG | -Ø | -ŋo -sʊŋ |
-Ø | -tshik -tshe |
-ne | -Ø -ko |
||||
| 3DU | -tshik -tshe |
-ŋo-tshe ‑sʊŋ‑tshe |
-tshik -ko-tshe |
|||||||
| 3PL | -me | -ŋo-ne -sʊŋ-ne |
-me | -me -ko-me |
||||||
Notes to Table:
- The suffix used in the non-past for a 1SG subject with a third person object (represented as -(sʊ)ŋ in the table) has three allomorphs, depending on the final element of the verb stem: (i) -ŋ for stems suffix in a consonant, e.g. dza → dzaŋ 'eat' (ii) a stem-final non-nasal consonant is converted to its nasal equivalent, e.g. puk → puŋ 'raise', and (iii) (sʊ)ŋ for stems suffix in a nasal consonant, e.g. piŋ → piŋsʊŋ 'send'.
- 2. Certain past tense suffixes are associated with a morphological rule identical to that described in note 1, (ii). These are Ø, -ne, -me, and -no-. Michailovsky represents this as the element N (which induces the phonological alternation) preposed to the suffixes in question. However, the distribution of this rule can easily be described in phonological terms: it occurs everywhere except before suffixes beginning in non-nasal consonant. Therefore, we have preferred to construe N as a past-tense marker suffixed to the stem, which is deleted when followed by a non-nasal consonant. (Note that a similar rule has been invoked for the related language Yamphu; Rutgers 1998: 103.)
Two things stand out when comparing the intransitive with the transitive paradigm. First, the repertory of suffixes is largely the same, the transitive paradigms containing all of the suffixes found in the intransitive paradigm, plus distinct suffixes for 1SG when the object is second person (-no) or third person (-(sʊ)ŋ in the non-past and -kuŋ in the past), and a suffix -ko found in the past with some forms that have a third person object. Second, there is massive underspecification in the transitive paradigms, with most forms marking only one of the arguments. It is the rules governing this underspecification that will be our primary focus.
Analysis of affixes
In the analysis we associate the suffixes with a morphosyntactic value, and propose rules for the distribution of the suffixes in the paradigms. Determining the morphosyntactic values of the suffixes found in the intransitive paradigm is relatively straightforward, the only twist being that second and third person are syncretic in the singular and dual.
| suffixes which can be used in both intransitive and transitive paradigms non-past past |
||
| non-past | past | |
| 1SG | -ŋo | -sʊŋ |
| 2/3SG | -Ø | |
| 1DU | -tshok | -tshoŋ |
| 2/3DU | -tshik, -tshe* | |
| 1PL | -kok | -(ki)koŋ |
| 2PL | -ne | |
| 3PL | -me | |
*Note: the distribution of -tshik and -tshe is as follows: -tshe is found in the past tense, and in the non-past when preceded by another suffix (invariably 1SG); -tshik is found elsewhere, namely when it is the sole person/number suffix in the non-past. Since there is some morphophonological evidence for a past tense marker (see the 2nd note following the 1st table above), we have assumed here a morphophonological rule whereby the dual suffix is -tshe when it follows another inflectional marker (overt or covert). This has been done for the sake of simplifying the exposition. Alternatively, we might propose two homophonous -tshe suffixes, one with the value '2/3DU' in the past, the other with the value '1SG + 2/3DU' in the present. This would not affect any subsequent arguments.
Of the exclusively transitive suffixes, those associated with the first person can be exhaustively characterized by the value of subject and object. The only difficulty arises in characterizing the exclusively past tense -ko: it marks all instances of a third person object with a third person subject, but in addition is used when the subject is 2SG. We represent its morphosyntactic value simply as 3OBJ (third person object); the limitation on subject person will be addressed later in this section.
| suffixes found only in transitive paradigm | |||
| subject | object | non-past | past |
| 1SG | 2 | -no | |
| 1SG | 3 | -(sʊ)ŋ | -kuŋ |
| 2SG or 3 | 3 | -ko | |
The suffixes may occur in a sequence of two, which we model as two rule blocks or position classes, labelled A and B. Block A is occupied by those suffixes which may occur first in a sequence of two, block B is occupied by everything else. Block A is thus restricted to those suffixes which mark 1SG, plus the third person -ko. In addition, it is assumed that -Ø is assigned by default for all other potential person/number values. The assignment of suffixes to rule blocks is shown below. Because the subsequent discussion will focus on the relationship of person/number markers within each tense, non-past and past tense are here given separately, in spite of their considerable overlap.
| Hayu non-past suffixes | |||
| Block A | Block B | ||
| -ŋo | 1SG | -tshok | 1DU |
| -no | 1SG>2 | -kok | 1PL |
| -(sʊ)ŋ | 1SG>3 | -tshik, -tshe | 2/3DU |
| -Ø | (elsewhere) | -ne | 2PL |
| -me | 3PL | ||
| -Ø | 2/3SG | ||
| Hayu past suffixes | |||
| Block A | Block B | ||
| -sʊŋ | 1SG | -tshoŋ | 1DU |
| -no | 1SG>2 | -(ki)koŋ | 1PL |
| -kuŋ | 1SG>3 | -tshe | 2/3DU |
| -ko | 3OBJ | -ne | 2PL |
| -Ø | (elsewhere) | -me | 3PL |
| -Ø | 2/3SG | ||
The suffixes as listed above will unproblematically generate the intransitive paradigms, but not the transitive paradigms, which brings us to the central issue of this study. In most cases only one argument is overtly marked. If we assume that the underlying morphosyntactic representation is fully specified for the person of both subject and object (which we believe is justified; see below), we are then faced with multiple instances of rule conflict. Let us see how this is resolved, looking first at block B, where matters are somewhat clearer, then at block A. In block B, conflict resolution can be described in terms of person/number values:
- if a first person argument is involved, it is marked; otherwise
- if a 2DU or 2PL argument is involved, it is marked; otherwise
- if a 3PL argument is involved, it is marked; otherwise
- if a 2SG argument is involved, it is marked; otherwise
- if a 3DU argument is involved, it is marked.
This translates into the hierarchy given in below, which roughly speaking, corresponds to the person hierarchy 1 > 2 > 3, as observed by Michailovsky (1988: 113), combined with a number hierarchy of PL > DU > SG. Note, however, that the person hierarchy is interrupted by the position of 3PL, which is marked in preference to 2SG.
- 1 > 2DU, 2PL > 3PL > 2SG > 3DU > 3SG
The same hierarchy can be assumed to operate in block A, and will account for the distribution of -ko '3OBJ'. Recall that -ko is found whenever the subject is third person, or 2SG. This limitation can be achieved by positioning 3OBJ below second person non-singular in the hierarchy. The person/number values which thus dominate 3OBJ are all associated with -Ø, the default suffix for block A; the result is that -Ø is found instead of -ko where the subject is first person, and second person non-singular.
- 1 > 2DU, 2PL > 3OBJ > 3PL > 2SG > 3DU > 3SG
Significantly, because of the syncretism of second and third person, there is no one-to-one mapping between this hierarchy and the suffixes: -tshik/-tshe and Ø occupy two different positions in the hierarchy, as illustrated in this fragment:
| hierarchy: | 2DU > | 3PL > | 2SG > | 3DU > | 3SG |
| suffix: | -tshik -tshe |
-me | -Ø | -tshik -tshe |
-Ø |
Roughly speaking, the hierarchy we see here is the familiar person hierarchy first > second > third, which obtains for all the non-singular values. There is also a hierarchy of number, plural > dual
singular, apparent in the third person. These two hierarchies, mechanically combined, will produce a composite hierarchy close to the one attested for Hayu, if we assume that the person hierarchy takes precedence over the number hierarchy. What we actually find, though, is a skewed version of this, with the highest-ranked number value of third person (3PL) dominating the lowest-ranked number value of second person (2SG).
Morphosyntactic specification
Although there is massive underspecification of the the affixes, there is evidence for the full morphosynactic specification of both transitive arguments, even where only one of them is marked by an inflectional suffix. This comes from a small class of verbs which display ablaut of the root vowel when there is third person object, as shown in the past tense paradigm below,where -a- is found with a third person object, -o- elsewhere. This ablaut occurs wherever there is a third person object, regardless of the subject. In this respect it contrasts with third person object marking by affixation: the ending -ko, to which we have ascribed the value '3OBJ', is not found with first and second person non-singular subjects. In our analysis this is ascribed to the position of 3OBJ in the hierarchy which resolves rule conflict. But in the ablaut verbs, these forms still mark a third person object: dza-tshoŋ 'we.DU eat it/them', dza-(ki)koŋ 'we.PL eat it/them', dza-tshe 'you.DU eat it/them' and dza-ne 'you.PL eat it/them'. Thus the hierarchy determines solely the distribution of suffixes, not the morphology of the form as a whole
| subj. |
object | ||||||||
| 1SG | 1DU | 1PL | 2SG | 2DU | 2PL | 3SG | 3DU | 3PL | |
| 1SG | dzo‑no | dzo‑no‑tshe | dzo‑no‑ne | dza‑kuŋ | dza‑kuŋ‑tshe | dza‑kuŋ‑me | |||
| 1DU | dzo‑tshoŋ | dza‑tshoŋ | |||||||
| 1PL | dzo‑(ki)koŋ | dza‑(ki)koŋ | |||||||
| 2SG | dzo‑sʊŋ | dzo‑tshoŋ | dzo‑(ki)koŋ | dza‑ko | dza‑ko‑me | ||||
| 2DU | dzo‑sʊŋ‑tshe | dza‑tshe | |||||||
| 2PL | dzo‑sʊŋ‑ne | dza‑ne | |||||||
| 3SG | dzo‑sʊŋ | dzo | dzo‑tshe | dzo‑ne | dza‑ko | ||||
| 3DU | dzo‑sʊŋ‑tshe | dza‑ko‑tshe | |||||||
| 3PL | dzo‑sʊŋ‑ne | dzo‑me | dza‑ko‑me | ||||||
Diachronic change to the hierarchy
In Hodgson's description (published 1880; summarized in Michailovsky 1988: 104-6), the repertoire of suffixes is essentially the same, but the distribution of some of the block B suffixes is different:
- The suffix for a 3PL subject with a 2SG object is -Ø instead of -me.
- The suffixes for a second person object with a first person non-singular subject are the same as those for a second person object with a third person subject.
- The suffix for a 2SG subject with a 3DU object is -tshik instead of -Ø.
These differences are illustrated in the table below:
| Hayu transitive non-past suffixes in the XIXth century (differences w.r.t. XX century system shown with green shading) | |||||||||
| subject |
object | ||||||||
| 1SG | 1DU | 1PL | 2SG | 2DU | 2PL | 3SG | 3DU | 3PL | |
| 1SG | -no | -no-tshe | -no-ne | -(sʊ)ŋ | -(sʊ)ŋ-tshe | -(sʊ)ŋ-me | |||
| 1DU | Ø | -tshik | -ne | -tshok | |||||
| 1PL | -kok | ||||||||
| 2SG | -ŋo | -tshok | -kok | -Ø | -tshik | -me | |||
| 2DU | -ŋo-tshe | -tshik | |||||||
| 2PL | -ŋo-ne | -ne | |||||||
| 3SG | -ŋo | Ø | -tshik | -ne | -Ø | ||||
| 3DU | -ŋo-tshe | -tshik | |||||||
| 3PL | -ŋo-me | -me | |||||||
The primary difference is that, in the XIX century system, first person and 2SG objects are treated differently from subjects. In the framework proposed in §2, this can be represented by a reordering of the components of the morphosyntactic hierarchy. In the XIX century system, first person and 2SG are ranked higher as objects than as subjects (a). This distinction is conflated, with subject joining object (b). 2SG is demoted below 3PL (c), yielding the XX century system (d).
- (a) XIX c. 1OBJ > 2DU, 2PL, 2SG OBJ > 1SBJ > 3OBJ > 3PL > 3DU > 3SG, 2SG SBJ
- (b) 1OBJ > 2DU, 2PL, 2SG OBJ > 1SBJ > 3OBJ > 3PL > 3DU > 3SG, 2SG SBJ
- (c)1 > 2DU, 2PL, 2SG > 3OBJ > 3PL > 3DU > 3SG
- (d) XX c. 1 > 2DU, 2PL > 3 OBJ > 3PL > 2SG > 3DU > 3SG
References
Hodgson, Brian H. 1880. Miscellaneous essays relating to Indian subjects (Trübner's Oriental Series). London.
Michailovsky, B. 1988. La langue hayu. Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
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