Navajo
Active verbs table
| gloss | layer | fut | ipfv | pfv | iter | opt |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a1 take down | lexeme | ndi’deeshhééł | n’diishheeh | n’diighį́ | niná’diishgééh | n’dooshhééł |
| a1 take down | stem-final C | ł | h | N | h | h |
| a1 take down | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V2 | V1ː | V1ː |
| a1 take down | tone | H | L | H | H | H |
| a2 start singing | lexeme | hadi’deesh’ááł | ha’dish’aah | ha’díí’ą́ | hańdísh’ááh | ha’dósh’ááł |
| a2 start singing | stem-final C | ł | h | N | h | ł |
| a2 start singing | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V2 | V1ː | V1ː |
| a2 start singing | tone | H | L | H | H | H |
| a3 fold it | lexeme | dínéeshłééł | niishłé | niilá | nániishdlééh | nooshłééł |
| a3 fold it | stem-final C | ł | zero | zero | h | ł |
| a3 fold it | stem V | V1ː | V1 | V2 | V1ː | V1ː |
| a3 fold it | tone | H | L | H | H | H |
| a4 kill (pl obj) | lexeme | deeshhą́ą́ł | yishhą́h | yíghą́ą́’ | náshgą́ą́h | ghóshhą́ą́’ |
| a4 kill (pl obj) | stem-final C | ł | h | Ɂ | h | Ɂ |
| a4 kill (pl obj) | stem V | V1ː | V1 | V2ː | V1ː | V1ː |
| a4 kill (pl obj) | tone | H | H | H | H | H |
| a5 eat round object | lexeme | deeshkił | yishkeed | yishkid | náshki’ | ghóshkeed |
| a5 eat round object | stem-final C | ł | d | d | Ɂ | d |
| a5 eat round object | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V1 | V1 | V2ː |
| a5 eat round object | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| a6 pull out slender object | lexeme | hadeests’ǫł | haasts’ǫǫd | hááłts’ǫ́ǫ́d | hanásts’ǫ’ | haosts’ǫǫd |
| a6 pull out slender object | stem-final C | ł | d | d | Ɂ | d |
| a6 pull out slender object | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V1ː | V1 | V2ː |
| a6 pull out slender object | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
| a7 grasp (sg obj) | lexeme | yideestsoł | yiistsóód | yiiłtsood | néistso’ | ghoostsóód |
| a7 grasp (sg obj) | stem-final C | ł | d | d | Ɂ | d |
| a7 grasp (sg obj) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V1ː | V1 | V2ː |
| a7 grasp (sg obj) | tone | L | H | L | L | H |
| a8 fall (3rd person sbj) | lexeme | ndoolts’ił | naalts’ííd | naalts’id | ninálts’i’ | naolts’ííd |
| a8 fall (3rd person sbj) | stem-final C | ł | d | d | Ɂ | d |
| a8 fall (3rd person sbj) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V1 | V1 | V2ː |
| a8 fall (3rd person sbj) | tone | L | H | L | L | H |
| b1 eat (hard object) | lexeme | deesh’ał | yish’aał | yí’aal | násht’ał | ghósh’aał |
| b1 eat (hard object) | stem-final C | ł | ł | l | ł | ł |
| b1 eat (hard object) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V2ː | V1 | V2ː |
| b1 eat (hard object) | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| b10 run out (du sbj) | lexeme | ch’ihidí'níilchééł | ch’íhi’niilchééh | ch’íhi’niilchą́ą́’ | ch’ínáhi’niilchééh | ch’íhi’noolchééł |
| b10 run out (du sbj) | stem-final C | ł | h | Ɂ | h | ł |
| b10 run out (du sbj) | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V2ː | V1ː | V1ː |
| b10 run out (du sbj) | tone | H | H | H | H | H |
| b11 drop 1 flat flexible object | lexeme | ndeesh’ał | naash’áád | náá’ah | ninásh’ah | naosh’áád |
| b11 drop 1 flat flexible object | stem-final C | ł | h | d | h | d |
| b11 drop 1 flat flexible object | stem V | V | V | Vː | V | Vː |
| b11 drop 1 flat flexible object | tone | L | H | L | L | H |
| b12 sit (sg sbj) | lexeme | dínéeshdaał | nishdaah | nédá | náníshdaah | nóshdaah |
| b12 sit (sg sbj) | stem-final C | ł | h | zero | h | h |
| b12 sit (sg sbj) | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V1ː | V1ː | V1ː |
| b12 sit (sg sbj) | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
| b2 fall (3rd person sbj) | lexeme | hadoołdas | haałdaas | hááłdááz | hanáłdas | haołdaas |
| b2 fall (3rd person sbj) | stem-final C | s | s | z | s | s |
| b2 fall (3rd person sbj) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V2ː | V1 | V2ː |
| b2 fall (3rd person sbj) | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
| b3 go out (dual sbj) | lexeme | ch’ídiit’ash | ch’íniit’aash | ch’íniit’áázh | ch’ínéiit’ash | ch’óot’aash |
| b3 go out (dual sbj) | stem-final C | š | š | ž | š | š |
| b3 go out (dual sbj) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V2ː | V1 | V2ː |
| b3 go out (dual sbj) | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
| b4 start to run (pl sbj) | lexeme | hadiijah | haiijeeh | haiijéé’ | hanéiijah | haoojeeh |
| b4 start to run (pl sbj) | stem-final C | h | h | Ɂ | h | h |
| b4 start to run (pl sbj) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V2ː | V1 | V2ː |
| b4 start to run (pl sbj) | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
| b5 kill (pl obj) | lexeme | ndeestsił | naastseed | niséłtseed | ninástsi’ | naostseed |
| b5 kill (pl obj) | stem-final C | ł | d | d | Ɂ | d |
| b5 kill (pl obj) | stem V | V1 | V2ː | V2ː | V1 | V2ː |
| b5 kill (pl obj) | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| b6 bound | lexeme | ńdínéeshniił | náníshne’ | nánéłne’ | nínánísh | nánóshne’ |
| b6 bound | stem-final C | ł | Ɂ | Ɂ | h | Ɂ |
| b6 bound | stem V | V1ː | V2 | V2 | V1ː | V2 |
| b6 bound | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| b7 throw in air (sg obj) | lexeme | yéideeshhą́ą́ł | yááhiishhan | yááhiiłhan | yánáhiishą́ą́h | yááhooshhan |
| b7 throw in air (sg obj) | stem-final C | ł | zero | zero | h | zero |
| b7 throw in air (sg obj) | stem V | V1ː | V2 | V2 | V1ː | V2 |
| b7 throw in air (sg obj) | tone | H | L | L | H | L |
| b8 die (sg sbj) | lexeme | dadeestsaał | daastsaah | dasétsą́ | daoostsaał | |
| b8 die (sg sbj) | stem-final C | ł | h | N | h | ł |
| b8 die (sg sbj) | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V2 | V1ː | V1ː |
| b8 die (sg sbj) | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
| b9 die (du/pl sbj) | lexeme | díníi’nééł | nii’né | nee’ná | nao’nééł | |
| b9 die (du/pl sbj) | stem-final C | ł | zero | zero | h | ł |
| b9 die (du/pl sbj) | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V2ː | V1ː | V1ː |
| b9 die (du/pl sbj) | tone | H | H | H | H | H |
| c1 eat meat | lexeme | deeshghał | yishghał | yishghal | náshghał | ghóshghał |
| c1 eat meat | stem-final C | ł | ł | l | ł | ł |
| c1 eat meat | stem V | V | V | V | V | V |
| c1 eat meat | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| c2 start off leading (sg obj) | lexeme | dideesłóós | diisłóós | diiłóóz | ńdiisłóós | doosłóós |
| c2 start off leading (sg obj) | stem-final C | s | s | z | s | s |
| c2 start off leading (sg obj) | stem V | V1ː | V1ː | V1ː | V1ː | V1ː |
| c2 start off leading (sg obj) | tone | H | H | H | H | H |
| c3 try | lexeme | bídínéeshtah | nabíníshtaah | nabínétą́ą́’ | bínáníshtah | bínóshtááh |
| c3 try | stem-final C | h | h | Ɂ | h | Ɂ |
| c3 try | stem V | V | V | V | V | V |
| c3 try | tone | L | L | H | L | H |
| c4 eat herbs | lexeme | deeshchosh | yishchozh | yíłchozh | náshchosh | ghóshchozh |
| c4 eat herbs | stem-final C | š | ž | ž | š | ž |
| c4 eat herbs | stem V | V | V | V | V | V |
| c4 eat herbs | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| c5 start to trot (3rd person sbj) | lexeme | didooldlosh | dildlóósh | deeshdloozh | ńdíldlosh | dóldlóósh |
| c5 start to trot (3rd person sbj) | stem-final C | š | š | ž | š | š |
| c5 start to trot (3rd person sbj) | stem V | V | Vː | V | V | Vː |
| c5 start to trot (3rd person sbj) | tone | L | L | L | L | H |
| d1 shoot | lexeme | deesht’oh | yiisht’oh | séłt’oh | néisht’oh | ghoosht’oh |
| d1 shoot | stem-final C | h | h | h | h | h |
| d1 shoot | stem V | V | V | V | V | V |
| d1 shoot | tone | L | L | L | L | L |
| d2 roll | lexeme | deesmas | nismáás | níłmááz | násmas | ghósmáás |
| d2 roll | stem-final C | s | s | z | s | s |
| d2 roll | stem V | V | V | V | V | V |
| d2 roll | tone | L | H | H | L | H |
| d3 chew separate objects | lexeme | deeshdił | yishdeeł | yishdéél | náshdił | ghóshdeeł |
| d3 chew separate objects | stem-final C | ł | ł | l | ł | ł |
| d3 chew separate objects | stem V | V | V | V | V | V |
| d3 chew separate objects | tone | L | L | H | L | L |
Navajo notes
- The presentation in the database is based on Pike & Becker (1964), where stem alternation patterns are analyzed. The allomorphy of prefixal inflection for subject and TAM is hardly trivial, but the general consensus in the sources is that it can be attributed to morphophonological rules, and so is not represented here. Following the citation practice of Young & Morgan (1972), verbs are given in their 1st person singular form, except for a few verbs where, presumably for semantic reasons, only 3rd person forms are given (e.g. the verb 'trot' which presupposes a non-human subject).
- Pike & Becker (1964) state that the stem forms they analyze are based on Haile (1950-51) and Young & Morgan (1951, 1953; it is not clear what the latter refers to). We have consulted Young & Morgan (1972; which has essentially the same corpus of items as their other lexical works) which gives the corresponding paradigms.
- Pike & Becker's (1964) analysis is over an abstract representation of 28 verb types, each of which is referenced to an exemplary verb root as found in Young & Morgan's lexicon. The abstract representation is expressed in terms of the stem-final consonant and general properties of the stem vowel (length, and the presence of a vowel quality or tone alternation). In the case of the stem-final consonant there are a number of discrepancies between what Pike & Becker (1964) represent and the forms as given in the lexicon. We have gone with the latter in such cases. In the case of tone and vowel quality what Pike & Becker (1964) represent is not exactly an alternation, but the potential for an alternation, which may or may not be manifested with a given root. But since they do not list what roots figured in their analysis, we have simply gone with the pattern as found with the exemplary root they give. (The vowel length alternations do correspond however.) Pike & Becker do not provide an exemplary root for their type D4 (non-alternating vowel-final root), so this has been omitted here.
- A noteworthy feature of subject marking is the consistent syncretism of 1st and 2nd person non-singular. But this is characteristic of the entire pronominal system, and in particular the free pronouns (e.g. nxíh 'we/you.du', danxíh 'we/you.pl'), so this appears to be a lexical fact about Navajo, and not a property of the inflectional system as such.
References
Haile, Father Berard. 1950-51. A Stem Vocabulary of the Navajo Language. St. Michaels, Arizona: The Franciscan Fathers.
Pike, Kenneth L. and Alton L. Becker. 1964. Progressive Neutralization in Dimensions of Navaho Stem Matrices. International Journal of American Linguistics 30.2. 144-154.
Young, Robert W. and William Morgan. 1951. A Vocabulary of Colloquial Navajo. Phoenix: Bureau of Indian Affairs.
Young, Robert W. and William Morgan. 1972. The Navaho language: the elements of Navaho grammar with a dictionary in two parts containing basic vocabularies of Navaho and English. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Company.